Historical Reading List: Historical Attempts to Synthesize Diamond

Dr. James Shigley

February 1, 2024

The unique physical properties of diamond such as hardness, brilliance and optical transparency have been recognized for more than two millennia. Rough diamond crystals were set in rings during Roman times, and by the 1600s the methods and tools were developed for symmetrically producing flat surfaces, or facets, on rough diamonds to create polished gemstones. In the 18th century, scientists became intrigued with both the natural origin and chemical composition of this special mineral, and investigating these questions drove most diamond research for the next century. Although it was known more than a century earlier that diamond could be completely burned leaving no residue, in 1772 the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier repeated this experiment by placing a diamond in an oxygen-filled glass jar, and heated it with focused light from the sun. Based on the production of carbon dioxide gas within the jar, he determined that diamond was composed of carbon. This result was confirmed by Smithson Tennant in 1797 and by Humphrey Davy in 1814.

Beginning in the early 19^th century, scientists began to try to synthesize diamonds using several experimental methods. In some instances, they produced tiny crystals which they claimed could be diamonds based on their apparent hardness, and by their visual appearance when examined with a microscope by individuals, often jewelers, who were familiar with natural diamonds. However, because of the lack of techniques at the time to characterize the chemical composition and crystal structure of these small grains, this identification as diamond could not be substantiated. It is uncertain even now if the tiny crystals were diamonds, since considering the growth methods and apparatus available at the time, the crystals could have been other phases such as silicon carbide, carbon nitride, boron nitride or aluminum oxide, all of which are nearly as hard as diamond.

These early synthesis experiments involved the use of high temperatures, but initially they did not take into account the need for high pressures to achieve diamond growth. Prior to the 1876 discovery of diamonds found in kimberlite pipes in South Africa, their igneous origin was not understood. The first verified and reproducible growth of diamond at high temperatures and pressures did not take place until 1954. The fascinating history of diamond synthesis has been presented in the book “The Diamond Makers” by Robert Hazen (Cambridge University Press, 2000). The following list of articles chronicles these efforts to produce artificial diamonds.

How to Use this Reading List

This reading list gives you an opportunity to learn more about the history of attempts to grow diamonds. Entries in the list are presented in chronological order to emphasize the development of ideas over time. The list is not comprehensive, but is a compilation of some interesting information that has often been forgotten or overlooked.

Many of the articles in the reading list exist in the public domain and can be found online at digital libraries such as Hathitrust, Internet Archive, or other digital repositories.  More recent publications can often be found in libraries. Abstracts of these more recent articles can usually be found on the website of the original journal or magazine, and the article itself is often available for purchase from the publisher.

The Deflagrator or Diamond-Making Machine, Author unknown, Mechanics’s Magazine, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 25-27, (1823). A report of the work of Benjamin Silliman, who used compressed gases forced through a blowpipe to heat powdered graphite to high temperatures. Tiny glassy globules of various colors, capable of scratching glass, were reportedly produced. The investigator suggested “this melted carbonaceous substance approximates very nearly the condition of diamond”.

Artificial Production of Real Diamonds, Author unknown, Mechanics’s Magazine, Vol. 10, No. 278, pp. 300-301, (1828). A short summary is given of the experiments of Jean-Nicolas Gannal, who created a chemical reaction between water, phosphorus and a carbon-sulfur compound in order to produce pure carbon. Filtering and drying a residue of the reaction, he claimed to have found tiny crystals which dispersed light – they were shown to an experienced Parisian jeweler, who “pronounced them to be real diamonds”. This same report appeared in the Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 140-141, (1829); a note appeared in the Annual of Scientific Discovery, p. 181, (1862); and a mention of this same work appeared in Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 14, No. 3, p. 687, (1879).

Ueber Künstliche Darstellung des Diamants [About the Artificial Production of Diamonds], Author unknown, Journal für Technische und Ökonomische Chemie, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 43-48, (1829). An early account of efforts to grow artificial diamonds.

Fusion et Volatilisation des Corps Refractaire [Fusion and Volatilization of Refractory Bodies], C. Despretz, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l’Academie des Sciences, Vol. 28, pp. 755-757, (1849), with four supplementary reports in Vol. 29, pp. 48-51, pp. 545-548, and pp. 709-724, (1849), and in Vol. 30, pp. 367-376, (1850). By passing current through an electric arc furnace, a granular crystalline powder was produced by direct fusion on the electrodes – this powder could scratch glass, and when burned it left no residue. This work is discussed in several articles: Scientific American, Vol. 5, No. 38, p. 302, and No. 41, p. 325, (1850); the Mining Magazine, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 352-353, (1854); Annual of Scientific Discovery, pp. 241-242, (1854) and p. 237, (1855). E.J. Houston discussed Despretz’s work in an article in the Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. 110, No. 3, pp. 170-173, (1880).

Sur la Production Naturelle et Artificielle du Diamant [On the Natural and Artificial Production of Diamond], E.B. de Chancourtois, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l’Academie des Sciences, Vol. 63, No. 4, pp. 22-25, (1866). The author discusses various ideas on diamond formation.

Sur la Production du Diamant [On the Production of Diamond], C. Saix, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l’Academie des Sciences, Vol. 66, No. 23, pp. 1168-1169, (1868). A short description of an experimental method to grow diamond is given. It involved passing chlorine gas through molten cast iron to extract the carbon, which then crystallizes as the molten metal is evaporated.  Depending on the minor impurities present in the molten iron, tiny crystals either colorless or of different colors could be produced. This work is mentioned in the Scientific American, Vol. 19, No. 6, p. 85, (1868); and in the Annual of Scientific Discovery, pp. 223-224, (1869).

The Asserted Artificial Production of the Diamond, N. Story-Maskelyne, Nature, Vol. 21, No. 531, pp. 203-204, (1880). The author, a scientist at the British Museum, examined some tiny crystalline particles produced by James Mactear, and reported that when ground between the polished surface of a sapphire and a topaz, the particles would not scratch either surface. When examined with a microscope and polarized light, they appeared to be optically birefringent. Finally, they could not be burned when subjected to intense heat. Placing several particles in hydrofluoric acid overnight resulted in them being dissolved. From these observations, the author concluded that they were not diamond. This report also appeared in the Journal of the Society of Arts, Vol. 28, No. 1415, p. 103, (1880); in the Chemical News, Vol. 41, No. 1049, pp. 4-5, (1880); and in Littell’s Living Age, Vol. 29, No. 1859, pp. 318-320, (1880).  The experimental work of Mactear is discussed in The Engineering and Mining Journal, Vol. 29, No. 7, p. 120, and Vol. 29, No. 8, p. 135, (1880); in Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 716-717, (1880), and in the Saturday Review, Vol. 49, No. 1263, pp. 45-46, (1880).

Artificial Diamonds, W. Crookes, Nature, Vol. 21, No. 533, p. 260, (1880). The author was also provided the opportunity to examine specimens provided by James Mactear, and observed that they displayed an irregular, rounded shape similar to that of industrial bort diamonds from Brazil. He also found that they could be made to phosphoresce like some natural diamonds. The article describes the material not as diamonds, but as “crystallized carbon sand”.

Diamonds in the Distance, Author unknown, Punch Magazine, Vol. 78, p. 35, (1880). A short satirical poem:

On the Artificial Formation of the Diamond, J.B. Hannay, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 130, pp. 188-189 and pp. 450-461, (1880). The author, a chemist and the manager of a chemical firm in Glasgow, became interested in trying to create diamond. Following the discovery of natural diamonds in kimberlite in South Africa a few years earlier, he decided to try to mimic in his experiments both the high temperatures and high pressures that were apparently required for natural diamond formation, although the technology for creating these conditions in the laboratory did not fully exist at the time. After many experiments, he succeeded in producing small transparent crystal fragments that displayed many of the physical and appearance properties of diamond.

Artificial Production of Diamonds, N. Story-Maskelyne, Nature, Vol. 21, No. 539, p. 404, (1880). Examination of some of James Hannay’s crystal fragments lead the author to conclude they were diamonds, as also reported in the Chemical News, Vol. 41, No. 1057, pp. 97-98, (1880); in the Journal of the Society of Arts, Vol. 28, No. 1423, p. 289, (1880); and in Littell’s Living Age, Vol. 29, No. 1867, pp. 823-824, (1880).  A short note in The Engineering and Mining Journal, Vol. 29, No. 9, p. 151, (1880) states that “It would appear that we are only at the threshold of the ‘Artificial Diamonds’ controversy”. 

On 26 February of that year, Hannay presented his preliminary results on diamond formation to a large audience at a meeting of the Royal Society as described in a report of the meeting that appeared in Nature, Vol. 21, No. 540, pp. 421-423, (1880); in the Journal of the Society of Arts, Vol. 28, No. 1424, pp. 336-337, (1880); and in the Chemical News, Vol. 41, No. 1058, pp. 106, (1880). He provided additional details of his experiments in Nature, Vol. 22, No. 559, p. 2 and No. 560, pp. 255-257, (1880) (republished in Littell’s Living Age, Vol. 31, No. 1887, pp. 438-442, (1880)); and in the Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. 110, No. 2, pp. 123-135, (1880). 

A poem, attributed to an official of the Royal Society, was included in a short article by A.H. Allen in the English Mechanic and World of Science, Vol. 31, No. 783, p. 67, (1880):

Further comments on Hannay’s apparent production of artificial diamonds appeared in articles in the Manufacturer and Builder, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 62-63, (1880); in the Belgravia Illustrated London Magazine, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 186-190, (1880); in the Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 18, No. 6, pp. 259-262, and Vol. 17, No. 10, p. 861, (1880); in the English Mechanic and World of Science, Vol. 31, No. 800, pp. 461-462, (1880); in the Mining and Scientific Press, Vol. 41, No. 6, p. 82, (1880); and in the Year-Book of Facts in Science and the Useful Arts for 1879-1880, pp. 92-95, (1880).

Artificial Diamonds, L. Pitkin, School of Mines Quarterly, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 140-148, (1880). The author reviews the history of past attempts to produce artificial diamonds. A similar discussion by F.W. Rudler was published in Popular Science Review, Vol. 4, pp. 136-142, (1880) (and republished in Littell’s Living Age, Vol. 30, No. 1873, pp. 362-365, (1880)); and by A.H. Japp in Days with Industrials, pp. 274-281, (1889). A short article on the subject by an unknown author was published in L’Annee Scientifique et Industrielle, Vol. 24, pp. 181-183, (1881).

On the Preparation of Adamantine Carbon or Diamond, R.S. Marsden, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. 2, No. 108, pp. 20-27, (1880).  After dissolving graphite in molten metal, a method to create hard crystallize octahedral crystals with an adamantine luster is described. This work was mentioned in the Gentleman’s Magazine, Vol. 251, No. 1811, pp. 627-628, (1881).

Formation of Diamonds, W.B. Scott, English Mechanic and World of Science, Vol. 39, No. 1002, p. 296, (1884). The author suggested a novel method for creating diamonds in metal tube, which when set up as outdoors and if struck by a flash of lightning, might be found to contain tiny diamonds. He stated that he had no knowledge of anyone else trying this experiment.

Sur le Préparation du Carbone sous Forte Pression [On the Preparation of Carbon at High Pressure], H. Moissan, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l’Academie des Sciences, Vol. 116, No. 6, pp. 218-224, (1893). Following his isolation of the element fluorine in 1886, the Nobel-winning scientist Henri Moissan became interested in the synthesis of diamond. By obtaining microdiamonds from South African kimberlite ore, from Brazilian diamond-bearing gravels, and from meteorites, and in each instance finding the presence of iron, he believed that this element played a role in diamond formation. He designed and built a new type of electric arc furnace capable of melting iron and other metals. Early experiments where molten iron containing carbon was allowed to slowly cool, and then the solidified iron was dissolved with acids, yielded a residue of only graphite powder. He then modified his experiments to allow for the rapid cooling of the molten metal, which created high pressures as the metal contracted. In some of the latter experimental trials, tiny transparent fragments were found in the residue – they displayed the appearance and physical properties of diamond, and when heated in a container containing oxygen, the fragments disappeared with the production of carbon dioxide gas. For the remainder of his life, Moissan believed that he had created diamonds. However, modern attempts to recreate the experimental design failed to yield fragments of diamond, but only of silicon carbide (a natural and artificial material subsequently named moissanite). Moissan reported on his experiments in the Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l’Academie des Sciences, Vol. 118, No. 7, pp. 320-326, (1894) and Vol. 123, No. 4, pp. 206-210, (1896); in the Annales du Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, Ser. 2, Vol. 7, pp. 207-236, (1895); in the Chemical News, Vol. 91, No. 2361, pp. 85-86, (1905); and in the Scientific American Supplement, Vol. 62, No. 1601, pp. 25646-25647, (1906).

Moissan’s work was widely reported in the scientific literature: Unknown author, Magasin Pittoresque, Vol. 61, No. 15, pp. 55-56, (1893); unknown author, The Nineteenth Century, Vol. 23, No. 191, pp. 678-683, (1893); C. Friedel, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l’Academie des Sciences, Vol. 116, No. 6, pp. 224-226, (1893); J. Meyer, Naturwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift, Vol. 8, No. 25, pp. 245-247, (1893) and Vol. 9, No. 6, pp. 69-71, (1894); P.A. Kropotkin, Littell’s Living Age, Vol. 197, No. 2555, pp. 742-745 and in Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 43, No. 9, pp. 622-627, (1893); by unknown authors in Scientific American Supplement, Vol. 35, No. 904, pp. 14452-14453 and No. 905, pp. 14463-14464, (1893); the Jewelers’ Circular and Horological Review, Vol. 26, No. 6, pp. 36-37, (1893); and Nature, Vol. 47, No. 1216, p. 370 and No. 1220, p. 472, (1893); and by E. Maumené, Le Cosmos, Vol. 14, No. 251, pp. 434-435, (1889) and Vol. 24, No. 423, pp. 433-435, (1893).

Further reports and discussions of Moissan’s work were published by V. Cornish in both Knowledge, Vol. 17, pp. 76-77 and in the Scientific American Supplement, Vol. 37, No. 959, pp. 15328-15329, (1894); by A.W. Herdler, A Scientific French Reader, pp. 91-96, (1894); by an unknown author, L’Annee Scientifique et Industrielle, Vol. 37, pp. 208-216, (1894); by an unknown author in Berg- und Huettenmaennische Zeitung, Vol. 53, No. 16, pp. 134-135, (1894); by A. Rossel, Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l’Academie des Sciences, Vol. 123, No. 2, pp. 113-115, (1896); by an unknown author in the Scientific American Supplement, Vol. 42, No. 1093, p. 17477, (1896); by an unknown author in Cosmos, Vol. 37, pp. 618-620, (1897); by J.B.C. Kershaw, Chambers’s Journal, Vol. 84, No. 718, pp. 633-635, (1897); by unknown authors in the American Monthly Review of Reviews, Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 712-713, (1899); Chambers’s Journal, Vol. 79, No. 255, pp. 724-726, (1902); Journal der Goldschmiedekunst, Vol. 28, No. 15, pp. 111-112, (1907); by A. Gradenwitz in the Revue Générale des Sciences Pures et Appliques, Vol. 20, No. 16, pp. 701-703, (1909); and in Science News-Letters, Vol. 14, No. 384, pp. 99-100, (1920).

La Reproduction Artificielle du Diamant [The Artificial Reproduction of Diamond], L. Dex, Revue des Deux Mondes, Vol. 188, (July), pp. 438-447, (1893). The author discusses the history of attempts to produce diamond.

Artificial Production of Diamonds, Author unknown, Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. 144, No. 862, pp. 239-240, (1897). A report of a lecture given by William Crookes at the Royal Institute of London in which he described his method to produce diamonds. The results of his work are discussed in an article by an unknown author that appeared in Knowledge & Scientific News, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 26-28, (1908). Both Moissan and Crookes believed that graphite could be dissolved in molten iron at high pressures and temperatures, and that carbon would crystallize out of the molten solution as diamond on lowering the temperature under suitable physical conditions. Some 50 years later, this assertion proved to be the basis of the first successful diamond synthesis by the high-temperature high-pressure growth method.

Diamants Artificiels [Artificial Diamonds], Author unknown, L’Annee Scientifique et Industrielle, Vol. 40, pp. 134-137, (1897). The author gives a summary of the work of Moissan and others to grow diamonds.

Artificial Diamonds, Author unknown, Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. 146, No. 3, pp. 236-237, (1898). Note on a synthesis method used by Quirino Majorana in which a piece of carbon is heated and then exposed to high pressures. Creation of diamond is claimed without the need for the presence of iron or other metal solvent. A mention of this work by Georges Claude appeared in La Nature, Vol. 26, No. 1, p. 90, (1898).  The original article – Sulla Riproduzione del Diamante [On the Reproduction of Diamond] – appeared in Atti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei, Vol. 6, Pt. 2, pp. 141-147, (1897).

Kunstliche Diamanten [Artificial Diamonds], J. Friedlaender, Naturwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift, Vol. 13, No. 28, pp. 325-328, (1898). The author discusses diamond formation in systems where silicate minerals such as olivine are present, which corresponds more closely with diamond formation in the earth’s mantle.

How Diamonds are Made out of Sugar, R.H. Sherard, Pearson’s Magazine, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 195-199, (1900). The author reviews the history of attempts to grow diamonds up through the work of Moissan, who is described as believing that large artificial diamonds will not be possible to produce. A similar discussion by an unknown author appeared in Chambers’s Journal, Vol. 79, No. 255, pp. 724-726, (1902). 

A Propos d’une Note de M. Moissan sur la Reproduction Artificielle du Diamant [About a Note of M. Moissan on the Artificial Reproduction of Diamond], G. Friedel, Le Moniteur Scientifique du Docteur Quesneville, Vol. 57, No. 712, pp. 236-237, (1901). The possibility that Moissan actually produced diamonds is discussed. Two similar discussions by Charles Combes appeared in the same journal in Vol. 59, No. 743, pp. 785-792, (1903) and in Vol. 63, No. 763, pp. 492-496, (1905).

Artificial Diamonds, W.B. Kaempffert, Appleton’s Magazine, Vol. 6, No. 1, p. 89, (1905). A note on experiments conducted by an electrical engineer, H.W. Fisher, who repeated Moissan’s process using improved apparatus and who claimed to produce small diamonds.

Improved Arc Furnace for Making Synthetic Diamonds, F. Collins, Electricity, Vol. 29, No. 25, pp. 339-341, (1905). The author describes a new design for an arc furnace for creating high temperatures.

Artificial Diamonds, C.V. Burton, Nature, Vol. 72, No. 1869, p. 397, (1905). The author summarizes his experiments to produce diamonds from a lead-calcium-carbon solution at temperatures about 700°C.

How Diamonds are Made in the Chemist’s Laboratory, F. Lees, Pall Mall Magazine, Vol. 39, No. 167, pp. 297-301, (1907). A discussion is given of the work of Moissan to create artificial diamonds. A similar article by the same author appeared in The Technical World Magazine, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 183-187, (1908).

The Artificial Diamond Sensation, Author unknown, Current Literature, Vol. 44, No. 5, pp. 557-559, (1908). The author discusses the history of attempts to create diamonds, and the fraud perpetuated by Henri Lemoine, a French engineer who obtained a large sum of money to fund his alleged invention for the manufacture of diamonds. He was prosecuted and sent to prison. This crime is mentioned in the short article “A Discredited Diamond-Maker”, Literary Digest, Vol. 37, No. 8, p. 246, (1908); in another short article by unknown authors in the Scientific American Supplement, Vol. 66, No. 1700, p. 74, (1908); in Popular Mechanics, Vol. 10, No. 6, pp. 355-357, (1908); and in Nature, Vol. 78, No. 2017, pp. 177-178, (1908).

Researches in Diamond Making, F.H. Mason, Mining and Scientific Press, Vol. 97, No. 23, pp. 773-774, (1908). A description is given of a new type of apparatus developed by Richard Threlfall in which high pressures are achieved by means of a steel plunger pressing upon a piece of heated crystalline graphite. The original article – On Some Problems of Electro and Electro-Thermal Chemistry – appeared in the Electrician, Vol. 56, No. 7, pp. 277-279, and No. 8, pp. 308-310, (1905).

Le Diamant Artificiel [Artificial Diamond], E. Defacoz, Revue de Chimie Industrielle, Vol. 19, No. 218, pp. 35-40, (1908). A review of the history of attempts to create diamond is presented.

The Making of Diamonds, Author unknown, Scientific American Supplement, Vol. 66, No. 1716, p. 327, (1908). Another brief review of the historical efforts to grow diamonds.

Über die Synthese des Diamanten [On the Synthesis of Diamonds], A. Dieseldorff, Deutsche Goldschmiede Zeitung, Vol. 11, No. 29, pp. 237-240, (1908). The author reviews the history of attempts to grow diamond.

Diamants Artificiels [Artificial Diamonds], P. Combes, Le Cosmos, Vol. 61, No. 1284, pp. 256-257, (1909). A brief description of the experiments of Eugene de Boismenu, and a photograph of his tiny “diamond” fragments up to 2.77 mm, are presented. This work, using an electric furnace, was described in the Scientific American, Vol. 108, No. 23, p. 515, (1913), which mentioned that one of the tiny crystals had been sent to Amsterdam for faceting. Other brief accounts appeared in the Engineering and Mining Journal, Vol. 96, No. 22, p. 1031, (1913); in the Mining Magazine, Vol. 9, No. 4, p. 297, (1913); and in an article by F.P. Mann in the Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 361-363, (1913).

The Genesis of the Diamond, C.A. Parsons, Scientific American Supplement, Vol. 86, No. 2225, pp. 124-126, (1918). Based upon their reported natural occurrence in kimberlites, the author suggests that diamonds did not form within the kimberlite, but in a rock found deep in the earth known as eclogite, both of which crystallized in iron at comparatively low temperatures. He then summarizes a large number of experiments in which he attempted to grow diamonds under “natural conditions”, but in which he never was able to synthesize them. This report was reproduced in the Jewelers’ Circular, Vol. 77, No. 6, pp. 46-47 and 49 and No. 7, pp. 52-53 and 55, (1918); and in the Revue Générale des Sciences Pures et Appliques, Vol. 29, No. 11, pp. 327-333, (1918). A brief report of Parson’s work appeared in the Mining Magazine, Vol. 18, No. 6, pp. 279-280, (1918). Discussions of his early work can be found in L’Annee Scientifique et Industrielle, Vol. 32, pp. 184-186, (1888). In 1920, the author published an extensive description of his experiments, which had commenced in 1887, in an article entitled Experiments on the Artificial Production of Diamond in the Transactions of the Royal Society of London A, Vol. 220, pp. 67-107 (1920). From his work, Charles Parson also concluded that Moissan did not synthesize diamond, but some other hard material.  He had also tried to repeat the earlier results of Hannay but without success.

Das Diamantproblem [The Diamond Problem], C. Rühle, Deutsche Goldschmiede-Zeitung, No. 2, p. 17 and No. 3, pp. 31-32, (1921). The author reviews the chemical and physical properties of diamond, and the history of attempts at diamond growth.

The Problem of Artificial Production of Diamond, C.H. Desch, Nature, Vol. 121, No. 3055, pp. 799-800, (1928). Considering the differences in their crystal structures, the author discusses the difficulties of recrystallizing graphite into diamond.

An X-ray Study of Diamonds Artificially prepared by J.B. Hannay in 1880, F.A. Bannister and K. Lonsdale, Mineralogical Magazine, Vol. 26, No. 181, pp. 315-324, (1943). The authors examined twelve tiny fragments given to the British Museum by James Hannay in 1880, and were labeled as “Hannay’s artificial diamonds”. Examination under the microscope showed that all but one were optically isotropic, colorless, and exhibited the luster and appearance of diamonds.  Xray diffraction photographs confirmed that the eleven were diamonds; one buff-colored birefringent fragment could not be identified with certainty – it might possibly be some ceramic material. The authors concluded that Hannay did indeed crystallize diamonds. A preliminary report – Laboratory Synthesis of Diamond – appeared in Nature, Vol. 151, No. 3829, pp. 334-335, (1943, March 20). A subsequent report entitled Diamonds, Natural and Artificial by K. Lonsdale appeared in Nature, Vol. 153, No. 3892, pp. 669-672, (1944).

Further discussion of Hannay’s work can be found in: The Quest for Synthetic Diamonds, E.H. Kraus, Jewelers’ Circular, Vol. 102, No. 9, pp. 39 and 48, (1932); Supposed Synthetic Diamond Tested, E.H. Kraus, Gems & Gemology, Vol. 2, No. 12, pp. 195-198, (1938); Hannay Did Make Diamonds?, R. Webster, The Gemmologist, Vol. 13, No. 147, pp. 9-10, (1943); The Man Who First Made Diamonds, B.W. Anderson, Gemmological News, (October), pp. 551-552, (1943); Artificial Production of Diamonds, C.H. Desch, Nature, Vol. 152, No. 3849, pp. 148-149, (1943); Laboratory Synthesis of Diamonds, R.J. Strutt (Lord Rayleigh), Nature, Vol. 152, No. 3858, p. 394, (1943); J.B. Hannay and the Artificial Production of Diamonds, R.J. Strutt (Lord Rayleigh), Nature, Vol. 152, No. 3864, p. 597, (1943); J.B. Hannay and the Artificial Production of Diamonds, M.W. Travers, Nature, Vol. 152, No. 3868, p. 726, (1943); Hannay’s Artificial Diamonds, G.E. Hutchinson, American Scientist, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 80-81, (1944); Did J.B. Hannay Produce “Laboratory Diamonds in 1880?, E.H. Kraus, Jewelers’ Circular-Keystone, Vol. 114, No. 7, pp. 120, 122, 124, (1944); and Hannay’s Diamonds, A.R. Butler and P.A.H. Wyatt, Chemistry in Britain, (May), pp. 462-463, (1988).

The Mystery of the Man-Made Diamonds, J. Charr, American Mercury, (March), pp, 39-40, (1954). The author briefly summarizes the history of attempts to produce diamonds. After mentioning the century-old understanding of how to grow synthetic ruby and sapphire, he concludes with the speculative statement: “Is a shadowy, perhaps world-wide “diamond trust” deliberately preventing the manufacture of artificial diamonds? There is a great deal of evidence indicating this is the answer.”

Über die Synthese des Diamanten [On the Synthesis of Diamond], A. Neuhaus, Angewandte Chemie, Vol. 66, No. 17/18, pp. 532-536, (1954). The author discusses the range of temperatures and pressures where diamond synthesis might be achieved. An English version of the article appeared in The Gemmologist, Vol. 24, No. 284, pp. 47-48 and No. 285, pp. 72-74, (1955).

Man-Made Diamonds, F.P. Bundy, H.T. Hall, H.M. Strong, and R.H. Wentorf, Nature, Vol. 176, No. 4471, pp. 51-55, (1955), and Vol. 365, No. 6441, p. 19, (1993). This article presents the first description by General Electric researchers of the process to successfully produce industrial-quality diamonds on 16 December 1954. This event culminated more than a century of experimentation.  H.T. (Tracy) Hall produced the first synthetic diamonds; he described this work in the Journal of Chemical Education, Vol. 38, No. 10, pp. 484-488, (1961) and in the Newsletter of the American Association of Crystal Growth, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 2-4, (1986).  Further observations on the early GE synthetic diamonds were published by unknown authors in the Lapidary Journal, Vol. 9, No. 6, pp. 120, 122, 124, 126, (1955) and later in the same publication in Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 356, 358, 360, (1958); by E. Gübelin in the Sonderdruck aus Gold und Silber, No. 2, pp. 23-24, (1959); by A.P. Armagnac, Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 197, No. 3, pp. 82-83, 134, 137, (1970); and by F.P. Bundy, Sverkhtverdye Materialy, Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 1-9, (1988). Donation of some of the first GE synthetic diamonds to the Smithsonian Institution was described by B.W. Powell in Rocks and Minerals, Vol. 31, No. 5/6, pp. 241-243, (1956).

Preparation of Diamond, H.P. Bovenkerk, F.P. Bundy, H.T. Hall, H.M. Strong, and R.H. Wentorf, Nature, Vol. 184, No. 4693, pp. 1094-1098, (1959). The authors provide additional information on the process used by General Electric to grow diamonds.

Some Observations on the Synthesis of Diamond, H. Liander and E. Lundblad, Arkiv för Kemi, Vol. 16, pp. 139-149, (1960). Article not seen.

 [Russian Synthetic Diamonds], J. Bonroy, Diamant, Vol. 14, No. 144, pp. 14-15, (1971). The author, an Antwerp diamond manufacturer, describes a 1967 visit to Antwerp by a delegation of Russian scientists, and being asked by them to undertake some trials to manufacture as gemstones several synthetic diamond crystals that had been grown at a research institute in Kiev.

Trends in Diamond Synthesis, D. Elwell, Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 15, No. 7, pp. 377-382, (1977).  Potential new methods of diamond synthesis are discussed.

The History and Present Status of Synthetic Diamond, K. Nassau and J. Nassau, Journal of Crystal Growth, Vol. 46, No. 2, pp. 157-172, (1979). A review of the history of diamond synthesis.

Diamond Synthesis, H. Liander, Industrial Diamond Review, Vol. 40, No. 507, pp. 412-4, (1980).  The history of diamond synthesis at the Allmänna Svenska Elektriska Aktiebolaget (AESA) Company in Sweden, which predated the successful results of the General Electric research team but were not published at the time.

New Frontiers in Diamond Synthesis, J. Collings, Optima Magazine, Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 102-109, (1981). A history is given of the work of researchers at the De Beers Diamond Research Laboratory to synthesize diamonds, which was achieved in 1958 using a similar high-pressure high-temperature growth method as the one developed by General Electric.

Who was First?, K. Nassau, Lapidary Journal, Vol. 45, No. 8, pp. 87-96, (1991) and Who First Grew Diamond?, AACG Newsletter, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 6-7, (1993). The early history of diamond synthesis at high pressures and temperatures is discussed.

The First Synthesis of Diamond, J.C. Angus, AACG Newsletter, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp. 9-12, (1993). The growth of diamond at low pressures preceded by two years the synthesis process used by General Electric in 1954.

Diamants: La Synthese a une Histoire [Diamonds: The Synthesis has a History], D. Sirakian, Revue de Gemmologie a.f.g., No. 131, pp. 6-10, (1997). The history of diamond synthesis is summarized.

The Long Quest for Diamond Synthesis, D.M. Kiefer, Today’s Chemist at Work, Vol. 10, No. 7, pp. 63-64, (2001) and Synthesis of Diamond, S. Ferro, Journal of Materials Chemistry, Vol. 12, No. 10, pp. 2843-2855, (2002). The authors discuss the long history of efforts to synthesize diamond.

Treatise on the Resolution of the Diamond Problem after 200 Years, R.B. Little and J. Roache, Progress in Solid State Chemistry, Vol. 36, No. 3, pp. 223-251, (2008). A discussion is presented on the history of attempts to grow diamond.

Diamond Synthesis by Chemical Vapor Deposition – The Early Years, J.C. Angus, Diamond and Related Materials, Vol. 49, (October), pp. 77-86, (2014).  A review is given of the historical development of the CVD diamond synthesis technique.

The End of an Era, J. Asplund, Gems and Minerals, Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 24-27, (2015). While the successful synthesis of small, industrial-quality diamonds is attributed to General Electric scientists in late 1954, their efforts were actually preceded by the work of Swedish researchers at the company Allmänna Svenska Elektriska Aktiebolaget (AESA) in a series of experiments carried out in 1953.  Desiring to perfect their growth process, and considering if it would be possible to patent their artificial diamonds, the Swedish group decided to postpone publishing their results. General Electric announced their production in early 1955, after which the Swedish group issued a press release, but details of their efforts were not published until 1960. In this article, the author summarizes this often forgotten first story of the first diamond synthesis.

The Early History of Synthetic Diamond, J. Evans, Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 90-95, (2022). The author reviews the history of diamond synthesis, beginning with studies on the chemical nature of diamond and the synthesis of graphite. The discovery of diamonds in the 1870s in South Africa in what appeared to be an igneous host rock (named kimberlite) caused scientists to recognize that diamond formation would have likely taken place at high temperatures and possibly high pressures within the earth. The author chronicles the many early claims and eventually the successful (but initially unreported) growth of diamond in 1953 by the Swedish company AESA.